do humans have intracellular digestion

Interesting outliers in this dataset are the pandas which, although folivores, have a microbiota that clusters with carnivores. Allometry and ecology of feeding behavior and digestive capacity in herbivores: A review. Food intake rate and excreta egestion rate are related to the flow rate of digesta through the gut/reactor that, in relation to its size, determines retention time: Thus, conversion or extraction efficiency should be reciprocally related to flow rate. Secondary metabolites (SMs) are compounds produced and/or sequestered by plants and animals that do not appear to play a major role in their primary nutritional or regulatory metabolism. Acamovic T, Brooker JD. (1)], which assumes that conversion/extraction efficiency will decline when reactant concentration increases unless compensatory changes occur in retention time and/or hydrolysis/absorption rate. Konarzewski M, Koyama S, Swierubska T, Lewonczuk B. These SMs are thus stored in an inactive form until activated by a glycohydrolase enzyme (e.g., -glucosidase). Evolutionary physiology. The first evidence for SNPs as causative factors in lactose intolerance came from a study of Finnish families where a DNA variant (C/T-13910) located in the enhancer element upstream of LCT associated with lactose intolerance (140). Glucose absorption by a nectarivorous bird: The passive pathway is paramount. Ontogeny of the gastrointestinal tract of marine fish larvae. Large changes occur posthatch in intestine size and digestive capacity as birds grow. Delayed effects of the terms of separation of rat pups from lactating females and low-protein diet on enzyme activity in digestive and non-digestive organs. For example, the elevated expression of intestinal sucrase-isomaltase gene in the intestine of rats and mice fed on high-carbohydrate diets is controlled by the transcription factors Cdx-2 and HNF-1 (36); and the recruitment of these transcription factors to the promoter region is correlated with the acetylation of histones H3 and H4 associated with this gene (215). Cloning and characterization of a potassium-coupled amino acid transporter. Although there has not been a good phylogenetically informed analysis, available evidence suggests that the ribonuclease content of the pancreas is higher in foregut fermenters and in some cecal fermenters that practice coprophagy than in omnivores and noncoprophagous herbivores [reviewed in reference (248)]. Lavin SR, Karasov WH. It is a brush border enzyme that hydrolyzes monophosphate esters, but its physiological role in digestion has not been well understood. Humans use extracellular digestion when they eat. Dietary protein and energy as determinants of food quality: Trophic strategies compared. German DP, Horn MH. A comparative survey of the hydrolytic enzymes of ectoparasitic and free-living mites. Hydrogen generated in the colon is partly absorbed, passes in the circulating blood to the lungs, and diffuses into the respiratory passages, where its presence can be easily determined. Erban T, Hubert J. Digestive function of lysozyme in synanthropic acaridid mites enables utilization of bacteria as a food source. In some animals, the gut microbiota contributes directly to nutrition by the fermentative degradation of plant cell-wall polysaccharides. Ecologia Nutricional de Insetos e Suas Implicacoes no Manejo de Pragas. Baker JE, Lum PTM, Halliday WR. Some plants, many microorganisms, and all animals perform these three functionsingestion, digestion, and egestion (often grouped under the term alimentation)but, as expected, the details differ considerably from group to group. Comparative utilization of phytoplankton and vascular plant detritus by the cockle Cerastoderma edule: Digestive responses during diet acclimation. Fish guts as chemical reactors: A model of the alimentary canals of marine herbivorous fishes. Konarzewski M, Diamond J. Evolution of basal metabolic rate and organ masses in laboratory mice. Some animals possess a substantial fermentative microbiota that produces SCFAs without a morphologically distinct fermentation chamber. Wei FW, Feng ZJ, Wang ZW, Zhou A, Hou JC. 1BD), one sees that although there are not data for every food type in each taxon, mean digestive efficiency for food types is inversely related to the relative amount of refractory material in the foods. Crava CM, Bel Y, Lee SF, Manachini B, Heckel DG, Escriche B. The wood-feeding roach, Clissold FJ, Sanson GD, Read J. Indigestibility of plant cell wall by the Australian plague locust. Scharf ME, Kovaleva ES, Jadhao S, Campbell JH, Buchman GW, Boucias DG. Do salivary proline-rich proteins counteract dietary hydrolysable tannin in laboratory rats? We distinguish the term absorption (transport from gut lumen to body tissues by either the paracellular or transcellular route) from uptake, which refers to the transport from the gut lumen across the apical membrane of the gut epithelial cell (one step in transcellular transport). Digestive responses of temperate birds switched to fruit or insect diets. Sodium/glucose cotransporter-1, sweet receptor, and disaccharidase expression in the intestine of the domestic dog and cat: Two species of different dietary habit. Sundset et al. Likewise for digestive enzymes, it seems typical to find significant positive relationships between carbohydrases and dietary carbohydrate but not between proteases/peptidases and dietary protein, at least for fish (179), and in birds (261). [Redrawn from reference (156)], with permission. Uni Z, Tako E, Gal-Garber O, Sklan D. Morphological, molecular, and functional changes in the chicken small intestine of the late-term embryo. Chediack JG, Caviedes-Vidal E, Fasulo V, Yamin LJ, Karasov WH. Circulatory lipid transport: Lipoprotein assembly and function from an evolutionary perspective. Dunse KM, Kaas Q, Guarino RF, Barton PA, Craik DJ, Anderson MA. The digestive lysozyme is expressed in the acidic compartment of the foregut, has an acidic pH optimum, and is relatively resistant to breakdown by pepsin [reviewed by reference (303)]. The discovery of efflux transporters over the past 2 to 3 decades across many animal phyla revealed another process by which passive absorption of lipophillic SMs might be limited. 10), and the resultant amino acids are exported via transporters on the basolateral membrane (Table 3). Cox CR, Gilmore MS. Microorganisms in the GI tract of many animals have a great diversity of glucohydrolases active against complex plant polysaccharides. (366) showed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major component of the bacterial outer membrane, acts as a substrate at physiologically relevant pH. Irie M, Terada T, Katsura T, Matsuoka S, Inui K. Computational modelling of H+-coupled peptide transport via human PEPT1. Question What is intracellular digestion? Englyst HN, Dingman SM, Cummings JH. Figure 4A adapted, with permission, from reference (243). Co-adaptations of feeding behaviours and gut modulation as a mechanism of co-existence. Miyauchi S, Gopal E, Fei YJ, Ganapathy V. Functional identification of SLC5A8, a tumor suppressor down-regulated in colon cancer, as a Na(+)-coupled transporter for short-chain fatty acids. Accelerated fat absorption in intestinal alkaline phosphatase knockout mice. These adjustments can occur within individuals in a wide variety of herbivorous animals, including endothermic mammals and birds (246, 296) and ectothermic insects (482), and crabs (295), and perhaps in cockles (Cerastoderma edule) switched from phytoplankton to detritus (338). In both young chickens and house sparrows, the posthatch increases in maltase activity are controlled by intrinsic regulatory mechanisms, but maltase activity can also be doubled by increased dietary carbohydrate (33, 43), and this is correlated with a doubling in maltase-glucoamylase mRNA transcription in the house sparrows (242). Because of this, it has been argued that they are not typically disruptors of intrinsic breakdown processes in either insects (26) or monogastric mammals (409). The production of some digestive enzymes appears to be regulated by integrated sensing of both the nutrients available in the gut and the nutritional requirements of the animal. Cahu C, Infante JZ. A physiologic function for alkaline phosphatase: Endotoxin detoxification. Active transport of 3-O-methyl-glucose by the small intestine in chronically catheterized rats. Lipophorin has been implicated in the transport of hydrocarbons, carotenoids, sterols, and phosopholipids, as well as DAGs. An important life-cycle digestive/nutritional change in some amphibians occurs at metamorphosis, when the digestive tract may be restructured and the diet may change (217, 283). Implication for the developmental regulation of the sucrase-isomaltase gene. Brzek P, Kohl KD, Caviedes-Vidal E, Karasov WH. Buddington RK, Diamond JM. German DP, Neuberger DT, Callahan MN, Lizardo NR, Evans DH. Koenig JE, Spor A, Scalfone N, Fricker AD, Stombaugh J, Knight R, Angenent LT, Ley RE. Manichanh C, Reeder J, Gibert P, Varela E, Llopis M, Antolin M, Guigo R, Knight R, Guarner F. Reshaping the gut microbiome with bacterial transplantation and antibiotic intake. Isokpehi RD, Rajnarayanan RV, Jeffries CD, Oyeleye TO, Cohly HH. Pauchet Y, Wilkinson P, Chauhan R, Ffrench-Constant RH. At days 6 and 7 of the sixth larval stadium, the larvae stopped feeding and entered the prepupal stage. Arts ICW, Sesink ALA, Hollman PCH. Ontogeny of D-mannose transport and metabolism in rat small intestine. The GI tracts of animals, including herbivorous mammals and wood-feeding insects, are recognized as cellulose-rich environments that are currently being targeted in gene discovery projects for biofuels development and other industrial purposes (130). Interplay between physiology and ecology in digestion. The extent to which the cell wall influences the bioaccessibility and digestion, in the upper gut, of intracellular components varies dramatically depending on the physicochemical . Notably, the neutral amino acid transporter in Drosophila (DmNAT6) can mediate the transport of most amino acids apart from lysine, arginine, aspartate, and glutamate; and, remarkably, it can also take up D-isomers of several amino acids (321). Diet influences development of the pig (. Ontogenetic development of transporter regulation in bullfrog intestine. This mode of regulation both maximizes the digestibility of substrates and minimizes the cost of synthesizing excess enzyme when the substrate is at low levels. Digestive enzyme activities and gastroin-testinal fermentation in wood-eating catfishes. For example, even when maintained on a carnivore type diet (55% protein, 10% lipid, and <4% carbohydrate), two species that naturally shift diet during development (Cebidichthys violaceus and Xiphister mucosus) increased -amylase and maltase activity as they grew, which indicates an intrinsic genetic developmental program matched well to their natural diet shift (178). Ontogeny of gastrointestinal tract in hybrid flounder jasum. In humans and other mammals, all regions of the GI tract are colonized, including the highly acidic stomach, which bears a diverse community of bacteria and some fungi (30). They compared copy number between three high starch populations and four low starch populations and found that the copy number was significantly higher in the high starch populations. NPC1L1 has 50% amino acid homology to the NPC1 protein, which functions in intracellular cholesterol trafficking and is defective in the Niemann Pick type C cholesterol storage disease (70). Low plasticity in digestive physiology constrains feeding ecology in diet specialist, Zebra finch (, Bucher EH, Tamburini D, Abril A, Torres P. Folivory in the white-tipped plantcutter. Buddington RK, Diamond JM. In the digestive system, food is broken down into simpler compounds, and nutrients are absorbed by the cells. Effects of 9,10 anthraquinone on ruminal fermentation, totaltract digestion, and blood metabolite concentrations in sheep. The gastrovascular cavity has cells lining it that secrete digestive enzymes to break down the food particles through a process called intracellular digestion. Erickson RH, Gum JR, Jr, Lindstrom MM, McKean D, Kim YS. Tavakkolizadeh A, Ramsanahie A, Levitsky LL, Zinner MJ, Whang EE, Ashley SW, Rhoads DB. Based on expression profiling and measures of activity, species in both groups have at hatch the full suite of enzymatic, pancreatic, and intestinal activities to digest fat, carbohydrate, and protein [e.g., references (74, 184, 186, 292, 407, 480)]. ABC transporters generally have 12 transmembrane domains, but each of ABCG5 and ABCG8 has just six transmembrane domains; transport activity is mediated by the heterodimer, comprising a 12-transmembrane protein complex (194). Remis MJ, Dierenfeld ES. Ribble D, Smith M. Relative intestine length and feeding ecology of freshwater fishes. Trypsin inhibitor in castor bean leaf extract inhibited trypsin-like activity in the coffee leaf miner (Leucoptera coffeella; Table 4) but not bovine trypsin (383). Nisbet AJ, Billingsley PF. (i) Although, as in vertebrates, the products of lipid hydrolysis are packaged into micelles, the amphipathic molecules of insect micelles are fatty acid-amino acid, lysophospholipid, and glycolipid complexes (442), and not bile acids (which insects lack). Consequently, the amount of breakdown in the vertebrate GI tract is dictated by the scale of microbial fermentation, which varies from trivial, for example, in pandas (Ailurus fulgens, A. melanoleuca) (121, 465), grazing goose species (48), and wood-feeding catfish (176), to extensive, for example, in ungulates and many rodents. This seems consistent with theory, because excessive capacity would waste energy and material in synthesis of little used proteins, and the space available for membrane-bound proteins might be limiting (117, 118). This complexity may not be revealed in the nutritionally sufficient diets that are commonly used for laboratory maintenance of animals, but could be important for animals in the field with access diets of variable and often suboptimal composition. This class of lipid-related molecules is distinctive from other lipids in two important respects. Prickleback fishes, which include species that shift during development from carnivory to herbivory as well as species that remain carnivores, have provided examples of intrinsic vs. dietary induced changes in GI structure and function (51, 177, 178), but the picture is a complicated one in which intrinsic changes, diet, and phylogeny all play a role in determining developmental patterns. Karasov WH, McWilliams SR. Digestive constraint in mammalian and avian ecology. Gene expression of nutrient transporters in the small intestine of chickens from lines divergently selected for high or low juvenile body weight. Diet-related determinants of absorption in individual animals are addressed in Section Matches of GI system biochemistry (enzymes, transporters) to changes in diet composition.. The invertebrate B(0) system transporter, D, melanogaster NAT1, has unique d-amino acid affinity and mediates gut and brain functions. Hanley TA, Robbins CT, Hagerman AE, McArthur C. Predicting digestible protein and digestible dry matter in tannin-containing forages consumed by ruminants. Lundgren JG, Weber DC. Struempf HM, Schondube JE, Martinez del Rio C. The cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin does not deter consumption of ripe fruit by cedar waxwings. Afik D, Karasov WH. Yadgary L, Yair R, Uni Z. Some SMs that alter digesta transit in humans and wild animals are listed in Table 4. This pattern, first described in a survey of more than 40 species drawn from the major vertebrate classes (245), is apparent also in comparative studies within fish (51) and birds (247). Many species respond to higher food intake by flexibly increasing digestive compartment size. Van Itallie CM, Holmes J, Bridges A, Gookin JL, Coccaro MR, Proctor W, Colegio OR, Anderson JM. Stein ED, Diamond JM. The fate of SCFAs in the gut epithelium has been studied particularly in the rumen. But, it illustrates that conversion or extraction efficiency should be reciprocally related to initial concentration and gut volume, and positively related to both retention time and reaction rate. In hindgut fermenters (lower figure), such recycling can occur if the host reingests the feces (called coprophagy or cecotrophy), breaks down the microbes perhaps with intestinal lysozyme, and then digests and absorbs microbial protein that contains the new essential amino acids. Colombo V, Lorenz-Meyer H, Semenza G. Small intestinal phlorizin hydrolase: The beta-glycosidase complex. Knott KK, Barboza PS, Bowyer RT. When production and secretion of a peptide hormone is excessive, it induces an increase in the number of the target cells and may increase the size of the individual cells. Vertebrate gastrointestinal system. Developmental study of a-methyl-D-glucoside and L-proline uptake in the small intestine of the White Leghorn chicken. Henning (208) provides a good overview of GI development in mammals, especially in the laboratory rat, the most studied of about a dozen mammalian species that have been surveyed to date (3, 17, 49, 56, 57, 65, 134, 196, 219, 238, 263, 294, 323, 347, 362, 390, 394, 397, 433, 471, 483, 489, 490, 492). The activity of lysozyme in the stomach of the foregut fermenters is over three orders of magnitude higher than that found in animals with no foregut fermentation. By occupying the receptors on the parietal cells, antagonists deny histamine the opportunity to initiate the production of hydrochloric acid, one of the chief causative agents of peptic ulcers. Brzek P, Caviedes-Vidal E, Hoefer K, Karasov WH. Recent studies with fish, birds, and mammals exemplify these improvements. The uptake of the vitamins pantothenic acid, ascorbic acid, and choline conforms to this expectation. Use of the nutrients in bamboo by the red panda (. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, Slansky F, Scriber JM. Harig JM, Ng EK, Dudeja PK, Brasitus TA, Ramaswamy K. Transport of n-butyrate into human colonic luminal membrane vesicles. Flavonoids have differential dffects on glucose absorption in rats (. Pitta DW, Pinchak E, Dowd SE, Osterstock J, Gontcharova V, Youn E, Dorton K, Yoon I, Min BR, Fulford JD, Wickersham TA, Malinowski DP. The latter class has been most intensively studied, and reviews of work in that group (148, 208, 354, 461) provide some major themes that apply as well to other groups. For example, metagenomic analyses have identified more than 700 candidate glucohydrolase genes of bacterial origin in the hindgut paunch of Nasutitermes termites, most of which have predicted capacity to degrade cellulose and xylans (462), and a remarkable 27,755 putative carbohydrate-active genes have been detected in the metagenome of the cow rumen contents, most of which are bacterial in origin, have less than 75% sequence identity with previously described genes, and many of which are likely active against cellulose (210). There are obvious advantages of such a system over a . 8600 Rockville Pike Cummings JH, Macfarlane GT. Timofeeva NM, Egorova VV, Nikitina AA, Dmitrieva JV. Flavonoid-drug interactions: Effects of flavonoids on ABC transporters. [Data from Fig. Composition and nutritional value of detritus. Buddington RK, Diamond J. Ontogenetic development of nutrient transporters in cat intestine. But, excessive retention time would either limit food intake rate or impose costly increase in size of the GI tract, or both, and this would be selected against in animals maximizing their growth or reproductive rate. 17 A and B). Hence, small intestine nominal surface area in birds is 36% lower than that in nonflying mammals. A recent meta-analysis (339) underscores aspects of this general response in more than two dozen studies of laboratory mice and rats. Activity increases markedly for sucrase-isomaltase, maltase-glucoamylase, trehalase, and GLUT-5, the fructose transporter, in most cases accompanied by increases in the expression of their genes. Another famous example is the bacterium Synergistes jonesii, which is capable of degrading mimosine metabolites and imparts mimosine resistance in the host ruminant, allowing it to eat Leucaena spp. Adaptive variation in digestive enzyme activity with diet composition is crucial to the lifestyle of many animals. Certain messenger peptides have been found to originate not in endocrine cells but in neural elements within the gastrointestinal tract, to be released during electrical discharge within the nerves. Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. In another example, when larvae of bean weavils (Zabrotes subfasciatus) were fed seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris they secreted inducible isoforms of alpha-amylases that were insensitive to the alpha-amylase inhibitor that is found in the plant, whereas their constitutively produced alpha-amylase was inhibited by SMs in the plant [reference (29); see also references (29, 403)]. (ii) The lipids synthesized in all insect enterocytes studied to date are dominated by DAGs, not TAGs; and sterols appear to be absorbed without esterification in the enterocyte (442).

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